Africans who lived in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Africans who lived in America - Essay Example The land of Cleveland was one of the main regions inhabited by the African-American people; this was after the survey by Moses Cleaveland, who toured the place, acquired it and sold it through his Land Company. The more the black population grew the more the racism grew as well. It reached a point where public institutions became segregated and the black were in most case the victims of injustice. They were not allowed in some hospitals, theatres, and churches. They therefore opted to form their own churches and that was when Black African churches were formed. Despite the fact that Africans were not allowed to access education, some like Booker Washington and Will DuBois managed to get educated. They later became the champions for the enlightenment of the blacks by agitating for their rights. Keywords: Cleveland, Africans, Americans, Blacks, Whites, Racism, Segregation, Moses Cleveland, Booker Washington, Will DuBois 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explain,  in detail,  who was Moses Cleavela nd, what were his goals for the Western Reserve? Moses Cleaveland was born in the year 1754 in the city of Canterbury in the county of Windham (Wheeler, 2000). He went to Yale College and graduated as a lawyer in 1777, and soon after his graduation, he went on to practice law in Canterbury; his service as a lawyer took a period of about 30 years. He was a lieutenant during revolution in America; this was during his practice as a lawyer when he joined an army at the Valley Forge, in the year 1978. He was married to Esther Champion with whom they had four children (Wheeler, 2000). The following year, Moses Cleaveland who was still in the army, was promoted to the position of captain. He was also elected as a member of the Connecticut general assembly representing Canterbury (Wheeler, 2000). In 1796, he led the first voyage to Western Reserve; he is remembered for his relentless effort in championing the ratification of the US constitution. He is best known for his investment skills an d hard work while serving as an officer of Connecticut Land Company. He had a band of surveyors varying from men and women, as well as experts. Through his great leadership skills, he managed to lead the whole team of surveyors into discovering a city; they named it Cleveland in his honor. He was always a happy man who enjoyed success and appreciated the effort of team work; this attribute is seen when he organized a ceremony to mark his team’s success for having arrived at the new Connecticut. He declared Cleveland as the new city of Connecticut and wished it a long life. After the great mission, he went back to Canterbury in Connecticut and on November 16, 1806, General Moses Cleaveland passed on, leaving behind a lot of legacy. A statute was erected in the new Connecticut in his memory. Western Reserve was discovered, it was a great land with great potential for business activities. According to Miller (1997), â€Å"as Moravian missionary John Heckewelder noted in 1976, t he area had the best prospect of water communication from Lake Erie to the Ohio River† (p. 143). Despite all the hypes, early settlers in the region had to migrate due to the miasmic swamps, which often made them sick. The federal government had to make a decision on how to dispose off the land. Lucky enough, the Connecticut land company under the leadership of Moses Cleaveland, came in and bought the land from the federal authority. His reasons for buying the land were to use it for agriculture and commercial purposes. Cleaveland’s immediate goal was to utilize the available lakes and rivers for communication. He had men, food, and instruments that were used for surveying and he needed to transport them by the lake. It was while in this mission that he discovered the lake was long enough for commercial

Linguistics Essay Essay Example for Free

Linguistics Essay Essay Some key terms: cultural, social, situational meaning; language; phonetics; the vocal apparatus; the vocal cords; voiced-voiceless sounds; place of articulation; stress or accent; pitch or tone; morphology; morpheme (singular-plural, tense). Assignment # 1: Essay on â€Å"what can the way a person speaks tell us about that person?† (due 1/18 at lecture time). Week 2: Jan. 18 The structure of language. [Assign. 1 (essay) due today at lecture time] Some key terms: syntax: subject, verb, object; language types; semantics (†Colorless green ideas†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ); pragmatics. Jan. 20 Language structure analysis. Language, Culture, and Cognition. (hdt. #3.0 3.01) Readings: Bonvillain, Chaps. 2-cont. (pp. 22-27, 37-39) 3 (pp. 41-63) Some key terms: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis; semantic or vocabulary domain; color language and color cognition; lexical classifications and ethnoscientific domains; focal meaning and fuzzy membership; cultural presupposition; metaphor, metonymy; metaphors of kinship, other metaphors; proverbs. Week 3 Jan. 25 Language, Culture, and Cognition. (Hdt. 3.1, 3.2- metaphors new words) â€Å"Metaphors We Live By†. Readings: Bonvillain, Ch. 3 (pp. 64-71) Jan. 27 Language and Culture: New Words in American English. Readings: Handouts: â€Å"Dictionary adds terms like chick flicks†; â€Å"Blog-blogger explained† â€Å"Words banned,† newspaper article. Project Explained: Profile of an ethno-linguistic group in the Los Angeles area. CHEM 105B Chapter 13 – 7 hours Chapter 14 – 7 hours Mastering Chemistry -8 hours Problems in Book – 2 hours Calculus 5.6 # 1,2,9,13,21,25 5.7 # 1,2,13,18*,35,39,45,48 5.8 # 1,11,13,16,21,27,29,32,35,41,49 * use a computer program 6.1 # 1,2,3,7,9,13,16,18,20,27,33,44 6.2 # 1,3,5,14,19,23,37,39,40,43,48,49,53,54 7 hours

The Dead Father :: The Dead Father Donald Barthelmeis Essays

The Dead Father Jerome Klinkowitzà ­s remarkably insightful review of Donald Barthelmeà ­s work begins with an anecdote about an evening they spent together in Greenwich Village (Barthelmeà ­s home for most of his life as a writer), and how a perfectly Freudian remark by Barthelmeà ­s wife put a stop to the writerà ­s boorish mood:à ¬Ãƒ «Why Donald,à ­ she said, à «your fatherà ­s is bigger than yours.à ­She was referring to their respective biosin Whoà ­s Who in America.à ® It is Klinkowitz's well-argued contention that Barthelmeà ­s mid-career novel The Dead Father (1975) not only represents the high-water mark of his skill as a technical master of postmodern prose, but that it also embodies the central neurosis/inspiration driving nearly all his work, from his first published story, à ¬Me and Miss Mandibleà ® in 1961, to his last novel, Paradise (1986).(Though The King is mentioned by Klinkowitz, it is clear he considers it to be barely part of the Barthelme canon.)For Klinkowitz, Barthelmeà ­s near-obsessive goal as a post-modernist is to à ¬buryà ® his modernist father.For instance, Klinkowitz writes that, while at first glance à ¬Me and Miss Mandibleà ® seems a perfectly Kafkaesque tale of a man awakening to grotesquely transformed circumstances, in fact it is à ¬[f]ree of overweening anxiety and not painfully dedicated to existential questioning or angst ...à ®[1] à ¬[Barthelmeà ­s] first inclination is to laugh at rather than flail angrily against the forms and themes of an earlier style ...à ®[2]Klinkowitz cites à ¬The Indian Uprisingà ® and à ¬The Balloonà ® as oft-anthologized stories which epitomize Barthelmeà ­s work prior to The Dead Father; pieces which came to represent the postmodern short story with all its socially savvy and technically sophisticated style, yet stories whose primary tone is comic rather than the stilted existential dread of Barthelmeà ­s modernist precursors.Thus anxiety of influence is defused through comedy and exaggeration.Klinkowitz implies that, in Barthelme we have our first authentic American Beckett, but one in whose work optimism is neither desperate nor self-canceling. Skillfully mixing criticism and biography, Klinkowitz demonstrates how Barthelmeà ­s life influenced his work; how his time in the army as a service newspaper writer, and later as a publicity writer and editor prepared him to handle à ¬words and images as blocks of material rather than as purveyors of conceptions ...à ®[3]But the use of autobiographical material makes a point beyond that relevant to critical biography.Klinkowitz argues that a consistent thematic in Barthelmeà ­s writing was life as text--and therefore text as some sort of incarnation of life.As Klinkowitz writes of his meeting with Barthelme in the village, Barthelme à ¬was firmly inside his text.

Canadian Autonomy

The Fight for Freedom Neham Marwah CHC2D1 Ms. Ballantyne January 15 2011 Some may ask themselves, to what extent has the 20th century contributed to Canada’s autonomy? Canadian autonomy came as a result of the events that occurred within the 20th century. Without these vital events they would have never gained full independence from Britain to become their own nation. The main events that influenced their autonomy are their brave and fearless fighting in WWI, their mid-war self-success and great contributions in WWII and the great assistance Canada served nations post war.Canada showed bravery and fearlessness to new challenges in the First World War that proved that Canadians were able to walk on their own. Canada was new to the war life, and although they only participated because of their attachment to Britain they participated with full force. Citizens all around Canada joined to serve in WWI, ready to fight for their nation. The first battle Canadian soldiers took part in was Ypres in 1915 and they joined the French-Algerian troops in this battle. (Newman, 105) The position of the Canadian troops was surrounded by German trenches, which made them an easier target. Newman, 105) Little did the Canadians know that the Germans were about to release a treacherous weapon for the first time in history—chlorine gas. (Newman, 105) The Canadians were taken by surprise, but French officials had been warned prior to the attack, but they failed to instruct the Canadians about this new weapon or any method of defending themselves against it. (Newman, 106)The French-Algerians saw the gas and ran leaving an open space in their formation for Germans to penetrate through. (Newman, 106) Canadians were hit with the chlorine gas, but they held their position unlike their allies. Newman, 106) They waited three days under harsh attack, until British reinforcements came to relieve them. (Newman, 106) Canadians came out of the battle with injuries and lost members bu t they were recognized as strong and courageous fighters. (Newman, 106) Ypres may have been the first battle Canadians fought in, but The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the one that really changed the outlook on Canadians. German soldiers were confident that no one would take over Vimy Ridge, and they had an advantage as they were on a hill that had a great view of the whole field, this made hiding difficult for the Canadian soldiers. Newman, 117)Canadians corps fought alone in this battle, under the command of British general Julian Byng. (Newman, 119) Under Byng’s command was Canadian born Major-General Arthur Currie was the commander of the First Canadian Division; they decided to use a technique called â€Å"the creeping barrage. † (Newman, 119) The plan devised by Currie was very well thought out and the hard work and dedication of the Canadian soldiers helped them win the battle. (Newman, 119) Although Canadians number had been cut by 3500, (Newman, 119) by the end of the battle they held their heads high.This attack showed everyone that Canadians were capable of coming up with a successful battle plan and able to carry out their instructions and achieve the task at hand. Arthur Currie became the commander of the Canadian corps, (Newman, 119) eliminating the involvement of British officers in the Canadian army. It was a huge step for Canadians to finally have something that was completely theirs; they were no longer being pushed around and told what to do by British officers. Throughout the war, August 8 through to November 11 became known as â€Å"Canada’s 100 Day† because of their success within the time period.As WWI was coming to a close, Lloyd George invited Robert Borden to the Paris Peace Conference to represent Britain. (Newman, 128) Borden rejected his offer and insisted that after all of Canada’s sacrifice in the war, they should earn their own seat, as an independent country. (Newman, 128) Canada suffered many casu alties in the war that led to their first step to independence. They were running their own, strong army, and they were doing it well, without the help of Britain. All of their fight, and dedication through the war process showed nations around them, their ability to take charge of a situation, and get through a hassle.In the mid-war years Canada showed its ability to become a self dependent nation and survive without collaborating with the nations around it. Canadian contributions in WWII were not obvious, but were definitely there. Canada showed its potential as an independent country that can survive through tough situations staying intact. Very few countries were hit by the consequences of the depression as hard as Canada; 1 in 5 Canadians became dependant on the government for survival. (Canadian Encyclopaedia, Web) Canada was seriously affected by the collapse in world rade; 33% of its national income came from exporting resources, and because of the depression other countries would not buy. (Canadian Encyclopaedia, Web) Canadian goods had dropped to an extreme low which led to many people becoming homeless and being unable to support their families. There were very few people who had jobs, so when WWII started, munitions factories were being re-opened and there were more jobs that brought Canada out of poverty. Canada started over and built its economy from the ground up, making it stronger than its previous structure.It was wartime yet again, but this time Canada knew the consequences, it joined WWII in its own right and not to accompany Britain. Canadian corps was ordered to capture Ortona, which became known as one of the best battles fought by Canada. (Marwah, Battles Notes)The Germans defending Ortona were very strong fighters and were rewarded for their previous battles, and they also had the advantage of being entrenched in the hills. (Marwah, Battles Notes) Canadian corps took Ortona house by house and within one week they had it captured. The c apture of Ortona helped the allies take over Rome, without which they could have never won the war. Marwah, Battles Notes) After this success, Canadians got the difficult task of liberating the Netherlands. The Dutch were facing starvation as they were being controlled and used for slave labour by Nazi’s under Hitler’s command. (Marwah, Battles Notes) Canadians struggled with their task to kill the Nazi’s, and after months of hard labour, they had finally freed the Dutch. The Netherlands were, are, and always will be grateful for the assistance of the Canadian troops and their struggle to fight for Dutch freedom. Canadians continued their assistance in D-Day.There were 5 divisions called in to land along an 80 km form, and Canadians were the 3rd division and got Juno Beach. (Marwah, Battles Notes) They defeated the defending Germans and moved farther inland than any other allied troops. (Marwah, Battles Notes) The casualties they suffered in this battle were muc h fewer than they had feared. (Marwah, Battles Notes) Canadians succeeded in many aspects of WWII, but they did not win all of their battles. When 50,000 Japanese soldiers sprung out to attack Hong Kong, (Marwah, Battles Notes) Canadians were ordered to come to their defence. 0% of the Canadian soldiers had never shot a gun in their practice and very unready for this battle. (Marwah, Battles Notes) The total number of their defence force was a mere 14000 men, they did not have air protection and Canada itself was outnumbered 10-1. (Marwah, Battles Notes) When Hong Kong surrendered every Canadian was either killed or captured and used as slaves to build. (Marwah, Battles Notes) The ability to find strength within your own home is difficult, but when Canada was put through the test they passed without a problem.Canada contributed many forms of success in WWII, but there were sacrifices that came with their glory. Canadians put their selves in danger to protect others, and their protec tion has made them accepted in many parts of the world. Canada became known for its separate achievements, and not the ones that attached it to Britain. WWII had ended, but the rein of Canadian contributions continued to pour in far after their assistance in the World Wars. The Cold War was beginning and the United States and United Nations were working on creating the atomic bomb, (Newman, 244) trying to keep up with the Soviet Union’s advancements in weaponry.They were having difficulty coming across a substance without which the bomb could not be made—uranium. (Newman, 244) It just so happened that all of the uranium refineries were under the Nazi control, all except one located in Canada. Canada provided the UN and US the uranium to build the atomic bomb and provided a safe-working environment away from battlefields. (Newman, 244) Canada participated on its own, and while working with the UN and US, was looked at as an equal. Canada was a huge factor in the reason US won the cold war, although Canada is not the most powerful nation in the world, they assisted in getting their partners to glory.Canada’s involvement in the production of the atomic bomb got them in tussles further into the future. Russian, Igor Gouzenko worked in the Soviet Union embassy in Ottawa and he announced that there were Russian spies located in Canada, US, and the UN trying to find information about their production of the atomic bomb. (Marwah, Cold War Notes) An organization called NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was created and Canada, along with Britain, France and 8 other countries were taking part in it. Each of the countries who are involved in the organization must send army, navy, air force units to a new NATO defence force. Marwah, Cold War Notes) They put together their militaries together to make a sort of super army; it was made to intimidate the Soviet Union from taking over Western Europe. (Marwah, Cold War Notes) Canada was able to recru it the biggest intimidation towards the Soviet Union—the United States. (Marwah, Cold War Notes) Canada was seen on a world-scale when they got the US to join NATO; (Marwah, Cold War Notes) the fact that they recruited the most powerful country in the world really had everyone appreciate their effort and dedication.When the United States turned to Canada for help with the creation of NORAD, Canadians rose to the occasion. (Marwah, Cold War Notes) US was quite frightened of the SU’s ability to drop nuclear bombs on North America, so they had Canada help them develop a system that could warn them of enemy air bombing planes. (Marwah, Cold War Notes) Nations around the world looked and saw the US look to Canada for assistance, and support. Canada became known for their own successes and not their achievements with Britain.Canada’s contributions post war helped them become recognized as an independent nation; for the reason that most of their achievements were separ ated from Britain, the 2 countries were not interconnected. The events in the 20th century contributed to Canadian autonomy and independence in numerous ways like their brave and fearless fighting in WWI, their mid-war self-success and great contributions in WWII and the great assistance Canada served nations post war. Canada fought courageously in its first world war. They held their positions when hit with the first gas attack in history, while their allies fled to protect their own lives.In the battle of Vimy Ridge they won their fight when no other allies could, and they were able to lead their own army, a huge step towards their independence. They contributed great successes in WWII; they became heroes around the world, endangering themselves to free the Netherlands. They assisted the most powerful nation in the world and led them to success and prosperity in the cold war. Although Canada was in the background, their presence was noticed. They were the backbone of every success and triumph made in the 20th century.They made their mark wherever they could, the mark representing their independent nation— Canada. Works Cited â€Å"Canada Flag. † Photograph. Pastyme With Good Companye. 15 Feb 2008. Web. 15 Jan 2011. Hillmer, Norman. â€Å"Statute of Westminster. † The Canadian Encyclopaedia. James Marsh . Web. 14 Jan2011. Marwah, Neham. â€Å"Battles of World War 2. † 26 Nov 2010. Class Notes. Marwah, Neham. â€Å"Cold War Events. † 02 Jan 2011. Class Notes. Newman, Garfield. Canada: A Nation Unfolding. Toronto: McGraw, 2000. Print. Struthers, James. â€Å"The Great Depression. † The Canadian Encyclopaedia. James Marsh . Web. 14 Jan 2011.

Alfred M. Green Speech Analysis Essay

The Civil War, a war fought during the 1860s, decided a great many things: slavery or freedom, south and north or unification. In the beginning of the war, the Northern African Americans were not allowed to join the Union Army and fight against the Southern oppressors. Alfred M. Green, while giving a speech in Philadelphia at the beginning of the war, urged African American to prepare to enlist. He also spoke subversively about the unfairness of the treatment of African Americans not only in the South but also in the North. Green uses a variety of methods to persuade his fellow African-Americans to prepare for war while also speaking out against the treatment of the African-Am. in the North. Green begins his speech by immediately mentioning the cornerstone of the American ideology, that American citizens believe in â€Å"freedom, and of civil and religious toleration.† By remind the African Americans what America is founded on, he incites in them the desire to go to war against anyone opposing the idea. Green, by the same token, reminds the whites of their unfairness in denying the African Americans their rights. The mention of the â€Å"immortal Washington† and â€Å"Jackson† also appeals to the patriotism in the African Americans, moving them closer to desiring to fight in the war. The appeal Green makes to the religious beliefs of the African Americans is apparent throughout his speech. Because most of the African Americans at the time were Christian, by referring to their God as the â€Å"God of truth, Justice and equality to all men† makes the AFri. Am. feel obligated to help the cause of the Civil War. Because their God believed in â€Å"freedom,† why and how can they deny anyone else that right? At the same time Green also reminds the whites that their same God is the white God and that the African Americans deserve rights as well. Green also wants the African Americans to be â€Å"trusting in God† because their God wants them to go to war and will protect them. Why should the African Americans not go to war under such protection? By the end of his speech, Green begins to remind the African Americans of their â€Å"oppressed brethren† in the South. He reminds them of people under a â€Å"tyrant system† and requests their assistance in overthrowing it. He also  mentions the desire of the Southern leaders to â€Å"drive back†¦civil and religious freedom†¦ and have more slave territory.† By mentioning the goals of the other side, he motivates the African Americans to battle by showing them the future of the nation if the South wins because they did not fight. Green notes that their â€Å"very presence† on the battlefield will urge the slaves in the South to revolt. Green’s word choice throughout his speech helps him to motivate the African Americans to battle without their realizing it. He constantly uses the phrase â€Å"let us† to persuade the African Americans to join the army without directly telling them to do so. A direct order is much less likely to be followed than a softer direction such as â€Å"let us.† He also includes himself in the group by using the word â€Å"us,† making him seem motivated and desirous of joining the army as well. If he desires to join, why should they not? Green also anticipates certain rebuttals to his argument, but he silences them by beginning his arguments with â€Å"it is true.† He wants the African American people to know that he too realizes the problems with the government but his is still willing to go to war. Although Green does make certain condescending arguments towards the white audience by the end of the speech he has â€Å"united† both American Americans and whites by focusing them against a common enemy: the South. He does want change, but he knows that defeating the Southern slavery system is much more pressing and important in the long run. Green is careful to â€Å"hope of the future† but still â€Å"improve the present,† and he hopes not only the African Americans but also the whites will do the same.

Institutions and Politics

Institutions and Politics Introduction Politics is an integral aspect of every community in the contemporary world. It helps communities to determine the system of governance that suits their needs. Additionally, it helps communities to regulate their governments in order to achieve social, political, and economic objectives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Institutions and Politics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Generally, engaging in politics involves articulating the governance issues that a country is grappling with (Crick, 2005, pp. 5-11). In this regard, the citizens and their leaders must actively participate in politics. This participation normally occurs through various institutions of politics. The focus of this paper will be the institutions that facilitate politics. In particular, it will answer the question: what sorts of institutions make politics successful? The answer to this question will be based on the premise that the ef ficacy of governance and politics depends on the quality of political institutions. The first part of the paper will define political institutions and various concepts of governance. The second part will discuss the roles of the institutions that facilitate politics. This discussion will lead to a conclusion concerning the influence of institutions on the success of politics. Definition of Key Terms Institutions of politics refer to the organizations whose roles include, but not limited to creation and implementation of laws; conflict resolution; formulation and implementation of governmental policies; and representation of the public (Hague Harrop, 2010, pp. 45-67). The main political institutions include the executive, legislature, bureaucracy, experts, political parties, and various types of regimes (governments). The executive is the organ of the government that has the authority and responsibility of executing the administrative functions of the state. The legislature refers t o a deliberative assembly that normally consists of elected members whose constitutional mandate includes making, amending, and repealing a country’s laws. Concisely, the parliament or the congress is the legislature. Bureaucracy refers to a professional body of skilled officials who serve in the public sector in a non-political capacity. Unlike politicians, bureaucrats are fulltime employees with permanent contracts. Experts are independent intellectuals with vast knowledge in specific fields such as law, political science, and development. These intellectuals are normally the main source of expert opinion. Political parties refer to organizations whose members have the same political ideologies or objectives, and strive to shape public policy by sponsoring the election of a candidate to a public office. The members of these parties include politicians and their followers or supporters. Finally, government or regime refers to the administrative organization that has been emp owered to regulate the public affairs of a country. The aforementioned institutions normally collaborate in order to achieve the socio-political objectives of a country.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Roles of Political Institutions Regime Types There are three main functions of the government. First, the government consolidates the funds that are usually spent on basic needs. In this regard, the government uses the consolidated funds to provide services such as healthcare, education, and security among others. Second, the government collects funds from the public and uses them to provide social insurance services. These services include unemployment benefits, food aid, and old age pension. Finally, the government formulates and enforces the laws that guide the relationships between individuals and institutions (Hague Harrop, 2010, pp. 15-22). The aim of this function is to promote fairness, equity, and harmony in the society. Executing these functions is a political process that heavily depends on the type of regime that is in charge of a country’s public affairs. In a totalitarian regime, the government has absolute authority over the populace. It controls nearly all aspects of public affairs and the private lives of the citizens. In this regard, a totalitarian regime is a threat to politics because it limits the participation of the public in decision-making. In most cases, a totalitarian regime influences the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the public in order to avert the tensions and dissent that might arise due to government failure. However, this strategy leads to sameness of opinion and infringement of the right to expression, thereby discouraging progressive politics. In an authoritarian regime, power is concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite. The leaders maintain their authority through political repression and sidelining potential challengers. This discourages political development and achievement of objectives such as transparency, accountability, and fulfilling the needs of the public (Crick, 2005, pp. 10-18). Election rigging is a common characteristic of an authoritarian regime. Furthermore, authoritarian leaders tend to disregard the law and pay little attention to public concerns. Political competition tends to be low or nonexistent in an authoritarian regime because the ruler has an indefinite political tenure. In a constitutional regime, the country’s laws limit the powers of the governors. Generally, the constitution defines the scope of good governance and politics. In this regard, politics is likely to be successful since the constitution protects the citizens’ right to expression and compels the government to execute its mandate. A democratic regime is associated with widespread participation in public affairs. The citizens have the right to choose their leaders and representatives at regular intervals, thereby promoting competitive politics.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Institutions and Politics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Democracy promotes progressive politics because citizens have the right to question their leaders. Besides, the government is accountable to the parliament, which has the authority to accept or reject proposed laws, decisions, and policies. One element of a democratic regime that promotes good politics is protection of civil rights (Crick, 2005, pp. 40-50). In particular, the leaders must operate within the law by making political decisions that conform to the constitution. The state cannot take away the citizens’ rights such as freedom of association, expression, and access to basic services. The politicians too have a right to express their opinions freely, to criticize the government, and to hold their campaigns without intimidation. H ence, democratic governments are likely to be more effective than totalitarian and constitutional regimes. Furthermore, a democratic regime provides the best environment for political development. The Executive The executive organizes the structures of authority that facilitate execution of the functions of the government. In most countries, the executive is responsible for the formation of the government by appointing members of the cabinet and holders of key positions in the public sector. The executive also plays an integral role in decision-making by issuing specific and general instructions concerning an existing or an imminent problem (Crick, 2005, pp. 7-17). Other roles of the executive include commanding the armed forces, representing the country in international functions, and pardoning offenders among others. The quality and the characteristics of the executive determine the success of politics. An authoritative executive is likely to discourage political development by ex cluding key stakeholders in the decision-making process. In authoritarian regimes, the executives hardly consult the opposition parties on national issues. Additionally, they use their excessive authority and state machinery to avert any form of political opposition. For example, President Mubarak used the emergency law in Egypt to reduce political competition. This law facilitated the detention and torture of anyone who opposed the government. Similarly, President Mursi has since acquired unlimited powers in order to control every aspect of Egyptians’ lives. Even though his performance as the executive falls short of the expectations of his citizens, he continues to use the police force to discourage expression of dissent. Democratic executives usually strive to ensure political inclusion. Furthermore, they have to serve the interest of the polity in order to be reelected. This implies that a democratic executive is likely to promote progressive politics. Charismatic leaders (executives) usually have great influence on the nature and evolution of politics. These leaders normally enjoy a lot of support in parliament. Hence, their political decisions are likely to sail through the approval process in parliament without much scrutiny. This leads to the adoption of ineffective policies and enforcement of laws that might serve the interest of the executive at the expense of the public (Hague Harrop, 2010, pp. 100-150).Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In some countries, the executives depend on corruption, as well as, divide and rule tactics to perpetuate their political ideologies and leadership. For example, in most African countries the executives normally appoint politicians to cabinet positions in exchange of unconditional support in parliament and during elections. Hence, progressive politics have little or no chance of success in a regime that is led by a corrupt executive. The Bureaucracy The bureaucracy consists of civil servants whose main responsibility is to implement the decisions of the executive or the government. The roles of the bureaucracy include the following. To begin with, the bureaucracy participates in policy formulation. Traditionally, this function was the sole responsibility of the executive (Hague Harrop, 2010, pp. 30-70). However, in the contemporary society the bureaucracy helps in policy formulation due to two reasons. First, most executives are armatures with little or no technical skills. Consequ ently, they cannot design effective policies on their own. In this regard, the executives have to obtain expert advice from the bureaucracy. Second, the executive and politicians normally entrust the bureaucracy with some aspects of the policy formulation process in order to enhance efficiency. Concisely, seeking help from the bureaucracy helps politicians to save time and resources in the process of policy formulation. The bureaucracy also executes some legislative functions. For example, a department of the government can make sub-laws, but within the scope of existing Acts of Parliament. The roles of the bureaucracy have significant impacts on politics. Concisely, the effectiveness of the bureaucracy in policy formulation and implementation determines the success of political processes such as elections. A bureaucracy whose members possess advanced skills is likely to help the executive to make informed political decisions. One factor that usually leads to government failure is p oliticization of the bureaucracy. In developing countries with poor governance systems, civil servants are usually appointed through nepotism and corruption rather than merit. In this case, the bureaucracy tends to lack the expertise that it needs in order to achieve its mandate. A politicized bureaucracy usually serves the political interests of the executive rather than the public. For instance, the bureaucracy can be instructed by the executive to implement a given development project in order to please the public. However, the project might not be beneficial to the public. A malpractice of this nature normally prompts political activism and debate among opposition leaders in a democratic regime (Crick, 2005, pp. 40-52). However, the opposition leaders in a totalitarian regime might not question such malpractices for fear of political repressions. One of the major strengths of the bureaucracy is that its members have permanent employment contracts. This ensures continuity in the implementation of policies. For example, the bureaucracy often continues to run the government after the dissolution of the parliament and the cabinet, thereby sustaining on-going political processes. In this regard, it ensures that newly elected regimes adopt the policies of their predecessors. Nonetheless, the bureaucracy cannot succeed without the support of the politicians. This is because its members are not elected. Thus, they are hardly aware of the needs and aspirations of the public. The legislature The legislature is one of the most important institutions since it facilitates politics at the grassroots and the national level. The first role of the legislature is to represent the public. Hence, the public channels its complaints and concerns to the government through this institution. The legislature is the best political institution for articulating the concerns of the public because of its diverse membership. The second role of the legislature is making laws. This role is important because it facilitates adoption of laws that encourage healthy politics and fulfillment of the citizens’ needs (Hague Harrop, 2010, pp. 160-200). Finally, the legislature provides oversight on the operations of the government. This involves monitoring the operations of the executive for efficiency, integrity, and commitment. The ability of the legislature to promote political development depends on the following factors. First, the formal powers of the legislature determine the extent to which it can facilitate politics. A legislature with an absolute authority to enact laws directly is likely to facilitate progressive politics. On the contrary, the success of politics is limited in a regime whose legislature is controlled by the executive. In this case, the legislature will merely act as a rubber stamp whose responsibility is to endorse decisions or choices made by various arms of the government. Second, the capacity of the legislature to use its formal powers de termines its contribution to politics. The legislature is likely to promote political development if its members have the capacity to manage parliamentary activities such as scheduling debates and drafting laws. The effectiveness of parliamentary committees, availability of expertise and members’ ability to make decisions also determine the extent to which the legislature contributes to politics. In weak democracies, parliamentary committees tend to be ineffective since the members lack the technical skills that are necessary in decision-making. In some cases, the committee members accept bribes in order to support or reject certain policies and recommendations. Third, the available political space determines the effectiveness of the legislature. Authoritarian regimes provide little political space, thereby jeopardizing the legislature’s efforts to perform its oversight and lawmaking functions. A democratic system usually provides adequate political space (Crick, 2005, pp. 41-50). This enables the legislature to be very assertive and independent. The resulting improvement in the effectiveness of the legislature facilitates political processes such as policy formulation, lawmaking, and articulation of the citizens’ problems. The Experts In modern democracies, experts operate as independent political actors. They work in collaboration with civil societies, interest groups, and social movements among others. Experts are think tanks whose main role is to help the government to make sound decisions (Crick, 2005, pp. 19-36). They participate in policy formulation by providing expert advice on technical issues. For example, most countries usually hire independent consultants to spearhead the process of drafting new constitutions. Experts also play an important role in the provision of civic education and articulation of social and political problems. In this regard, they discuss the issues that the country is grappling with and present policy rec ommendations to the government for action. The quality of the experts in terms of their skills and knowledge determines the extent to which they can influence politics. Possession of adequate skills and knowledge enables the experts to make positive contributions to political development. The capacity of the experts to utilize their skills and knowledge is also important. Experts who are empowered to express their opinions without fear of political repression normally improve the politics of their country. Concisely, they generate new political ideas and empower their fellow citizens to focus on progressive politics. Political Parties A well functioning political system must have effective parties. In the contemporary society, availability of adequate political parties is a necessary requirement for the formation of a democratic system of governance (Crick, 2005, pp. 40-50). The parties mobilize the citizens and facilitate their participation in political processes. In this regard, they socialize and educate the electorate on issues such as the functioning of the electoral system. They also obtain opinions from the public and channel it to the government. In most cases, the political parties aggregate and articulate the concerns of their members before contacting the government for help. Finally, political parties recruit and train candidates who compete for elective positions in general elections. A political party can only perform these functions if it has effective organizational structures. The party must have different levels of management that are responsible for the execution of various tasks. The party can only make meaningful contributions to politics if its leaders are able to create and implement effective manifestos. It is apparent that parties with corrupt leaders cannot encourage progressive politics. The party must have adequate funds in order to make positive contributions in politics. For example, parties cannot sponsor political campaigns and voter education if they have inadequate funds. Conclusion Politics is facilitated by various institutions, which include the executive, legislature, bureaucracy, experts, and political parties among others (Crick, 2005, pp. 5-16). Each of these institutions focuses on specific aspects of various political processes. For example, the executive formulates policies, whereas the legislature provides oversight on the implementation process. The effectiveness of these institutions is determined by their qualities. These qualities include the integrity of the members, the capacity of the institution to execute its mandate, availability of resources, and the vision of the institution among others. The existence of these qualities enables an institution to make positive contributions to political development. This leads to the conclusion that the efficacy of governance and politics depends on the quality of political institutions. References Crick, B. (2005). In Defence of Politics. London: Continuum. Hague, R., Harrop, M. (2010). Political Science: A Comparative Introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Word Choice Effect vs. Affect - Proofread My Paper

Word Choice Effect vs. Affect - Proofread My Paper Word Choice: Effect vs. Affect Despite the fact that effect is usually a noun and affect is primarily a verb, many people confuse these words. To avoid making this mistake, you should try to learn which is which. Luckily, this is fairly straightforward. Effect The word effect is usually a noun and means consequence or result. It can be used in a sentence like this: The effects of sun damage are long lasting. Effects can also sometimes mean personal items, as in I will gather my effects and then we can go. You should be able to discern the correct meaning from the context. Less commonly, effect can be used as a verb meaning cause to happen, such as in: The changes were effected throughout the company. Affect The word affect is usually a verb, meaning change or influence. For example: New strings on a violin affect the quality of the tone produced. It can also be used to describe emotional response, as in: He was deeply affected by what he saw. As a related noun, affect refers to the observable manifestations of an emotion, but this is mostly confined to psychology. Be aware that the word affected can mean put on a display or pretend something. If someone doesnt want to show that they are offended, for instance, we might say that they affected a show of nonchalance to hide their real feelings. Effect or Affect? These terms are confusing because they sound so similar and both can be used when discussing a change. The vital thing to remember here is that effect is usually a noun and affect is typically a verb. As such, if youre referring to the change itself, the term youll need is effect (e.g., the effects of stress can be devastating to your health). On the other hand, if youre referring to the act of causing a change, the word youll usually need is affect (e.g., stress can seriously affect your health).

Predicting the Presidential Election with Baseball

Predicting the Presidential Election with Baseball Can the winner of the World Series predict who will become President of the United States? If the American League wins, will that mean a win for the Republican candidate? If the National League wins, does that mean a Democratic president for the next four years? A 24-Year Hot Streak Up until  the 1980 presidential election, it appeared that the World Series was an accurate predictor of the presidential race. From 1952 to 1976, whenever the  American League won the World Series, the President to win in that years election was a Republican. If the National League won, then the election went to the Democrat. However,  the Series hot streak ended with the 1980 election. That year, the Philadelphia Phillies, a National League team, won the Series and Ronald Reagan, a Republican, won the White House. Since then, the World Series has accurately predicted the presidential race 5 out of 9 times, giving is a batting average of 0.555 (or round it up to 0.556, if you must). Thats a very good average for baseball but otherwise is not much  better than flipping a coin. Seven-Game Sage The Series is a better predictor of presidents when it goes to seven games. In all of the following election years, the Series got it right. If an American League (AL) team won, so did the Republicans; if a National League (NL) team won, the next president was a Democrat. And the winners were... 1924: Washington Senators (AL) and Calvin Coolidge (R)1940: Cincinnati Reds (NL) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (D)1952 and 1956: New York Yankees (AL) and Dwight Eisenhower (R)1960: Pittsburgh Pirates (NL) and John F. Kennedy (D)1964: St. Louis Cardinals (NL) and Lyndon Johnson (D)1968 and 1972: Detroit Tigers (AL) and Richard Nixon (R) Another (Brief) Streak The Series got hot again in 2000 and accurately predicted the next four presidents, starting with George W. Bush. Actually, it was only two presidentsBush and Obama, both of whom won reelectionbut you cant fault the Series for that. In 2016, it was almost too close to call. The Cubs (National League) won, but so did Trump (Republican). Maybe the Series was banking on the popular vote, which was won by Democrat Hilary Clinton. Darn that electoral college! Other Sure Things? Many Americans swear by patterns and coincidences to help them predict presidential elections. Other examples of predictors from past and present years include the following: If the Washington Redskins win the week of the election, this means a win for the incumbent party. This has held true since 1936.Whichever candidates likeness is on the halloween mask that sells the most will be the next president.  When companies produce competing products, the one that sells the most is supposed to predict the winner. For example, if a company has cups with images of the Republican and Democratic candidates, the one that  outsells the other would be a predictor.If the Dow Jones Average goes up between  August and October, this predicts a win for the incumbent.If the Los Angeles Lakers win the the championship, then the Republican candidate will win. Obviously some of these predictors have a greater basis in reality than others. While most people would say that the Lakers or the Redskins winning is more chance than anything else, the state of the economy does have a huge impact on the presidential election. After all of these predictors, are we any closer to knowing who will win the next presidential election? The answer, of course, is no. However, one thing is fairly certain: to cover their bets, it is more than likely that the Republican candidate will be rooting for the American League team and the Democratic candidate will be cheering on the National League team when the first pitch is thrown in the 2020  World Series.

Judea War and Jews Role in First Two Wars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Judea War and Jews Role in First Two Wars - Essay Example Judea War and Jews’ Role in First Two Wars I was also skeptic with the materials as they were written purposely to refute one in order to favor the other. The facts and documents may be present but the article presented by the National-Socialist Party of Canada is apparent in its inclination with Adolf Hitler. However, with the Mailstar’s article, being document-ridden site had made its point in its presentation. With organized narration of the accounts of the pre-WWII particularly of Benjamin Freedman and supported evidences, I agree with the bias-state of the sites as well as the analysis of Freedman that Jews had brought themselves into the tragedy brought by wars that German executed to most of them. They have been very influential in manipulating leaders of nations and organizations in order to get what their own personal interest – the Palestine. I also agree that Germany indeed suffered from the betrayal of its own citizens who had embraced the religion of the Jews. Freedman made this perspective easy to comprehend when he exemplified the Chinese Arab or Chinese Moslem; betraying their own homeland and their fellow countrymen because of the notion that they were Chinese Moslem and was different from the citizens of China. Personal interest creates greed and abuse of power – this is the case of the Jews during the Pre-WWII ear. Freedman had emphasized that â€Å"not a single hair was touched to any Jews in Germany† even with all of their provoking advances against the Germans.

How are Night Vision Devices Beneficial to Society Research Paper

How are Night Vision Devices Beneficial to Society - Research Paper Example This essay stresses that one of the filed that has solely relied in these devices is the military. Military has benefited on this technology close to a century. This has enabled them to perform most of their vital operations in the darkness. This paper declares that before the development of this technology the military carried out their main operations during the day. This technology of night vision devices was markedly enhanced with the advent of World War II. At this period, both Germany and Britain developed a basic infrared sniper. However, few of these innovations were used during this reign. This is because this basic apparatus only assisted in offering a perimeter defense. Additionally, they were extremely heavy and required continuous replenishing of power. This reduced their effectiveness and worth during this period. However, these challenges experienced at this time helped in development of improved technological materials. This led to the development of an advanced night vision technology. Most of the military leaders saw the usefulness of such technology beyond just operating under the cover of darkness. This potential existed in the use of night vision goggles, helmets and weapons that was to help armies o perate effectively under the cover of darkness. This meant that there was to be an improvement that would ensure there was no need of IR searchlight. This would ensure that the enemy could not detect the position of the soldier. (Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate, n.d.). T

The July plotters of 1944 were not courageous men whose purpose was Essay

The July plotters of 1944 were not courageous men whose purpose was honourable but reckless men who acted out of their own self interest How valid is this assessment of the July Plot of 1944 - Essay Example storted political circumstances of the country in Germany wiped out the war situation and Hitler’s public interaction has reduced in monthly visit in Berlin. The leaders of the conspiracy included Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, General Ludwig Beck, Lieutenant Colonel Claus, and Count Schenk von Stauffenberg, The conspirators like Himmler and Stauffenberg were suspicious and they had their own personal intentions than the unified goal. Stauffenberg took the responsibility to carry out the assassination attempt. During the time of German Campaign against Soviet Union, Stauffenberg became frustrated with Hitler’s misrule. Beginning of his career Stauffenberg has revealed his loyalty and responsibility to Hitler and to Nazi Germany. But towards the end of 1930s, like others Stauffenberg began to think that Hitler’s misrule pull the nation in to the disaster. Stauffenberg’s plan was to plant a briefcase with the bomb in Hitler’s conference room. Stauffenber g’s words reveal his will power and intention. The article remarks;† In August 1942, he told a friend: â€Å"They are shooting Jews in masses. These crimes must not be allowed to continue† (Peter, 2004 P. 2). After the unsuccessful attempt of July plot Stauffenberg was honored as a courageous warrior who made an unending fight against Hitler’s despotic rule. A dreadful reality is that the purpose of the conspirators has changed and it came to be observed by some of them as achieving the military honors themselves. Most of them have worked under Hitler’s administration in their past. Martin Collier, Philip Pedley state that; â€Å"In Berlin, the conspiracy was paralyzed by indecision and vacillation† (Martin Collier& Philip Pedley, 2005 p. 122) Field Marshal Witzleben was a soldier who participated in the event of July plot 1944. Witzleben and others were found guilty and sentenced to hang. His dreadful death proves that he was a courageous fighter. The following comment about the conspirators underlines

Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 15

Human Resource Management - Essay Example or recruiting able and established staff is very much there since every organization or company for that matter wants to achieve efficiency and effectiveness when it comes to getting the things done in a quick manner. There are instances when employees have been known to prolong things just because they do not feel to be in the mood to do so. This is a definitive statement on the part of the employees that they were recruited wrongly at the time of their hiring and the organization did indeed make a mistake in choosing such a worker over other options that were available to it all over the world. It has been seen that at times, the top line personnel present in offices delegate jobs and assignments to their sub-ordinates without even thinking that the same might not be the correct manner and mode of action as to go about carrying out the tasks and responsibilities. They think that delegation would prosper a sense of getting more work within the sub-ordinates who themselves are pretty much occupied with their already assigned tasks and jobs. This is hence not the correct manner in which things should be done and hence a need has to be chalked out to ramify the very same problem. The best possible diversity that could be made in this regard is to appoint top line managers who understand the psyche of the people working under him or her or on the same level as his so that he or she can get a grasp as to what employees usually are best suited at and what they do not prefer under certain strenuous conditions in the office place environment. As a consequence, being able to do more work is definitely considered a plus and an added advantage for an employee but this should not, under any level, exceed his or her capabilities and skill sets. He or she must be assigned the amount of work which is proportionate with his or her pay, already set working conditions and more so the skills on the basis of which he or she was selected in the first place. Diversity therefore could

The Role of the United Nations in Defending International Human Rights Essay

The Role of the United Nations in Defending International Human Rights - Essay Example The United Nations is an organization which was founded in the year 1945, at the signing of the United Nations Charter by 50 countries, and it replaced the League of Nations, which was founded in 1919. Since 1948 there have been 60 UN peacekeeping missions, and thus far, close to 130 nations have contributed personnel at various times. As of the year 2007, there are now 192 United Nations member states, thus encompassing almost every recognized independent state. â€Å"From its headquarters in New York City, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings throughout the year. The organization is divided into administrative bodies, including the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Secretariat, Trusteeship Council, and the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN System agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nationâ€⠄¢s Children Fund (UNICEF). The UN’s most visible public figure is the Secretary-General† (Wikipedia, 2007). The purpose of the United Nations from the very beginning was to maintain international security and peace, seek to develop friendly relations amongst all nations, try to tackle economic and social problems as well as humanitarian issues, and act as a hub for all nations to be able to act together so that as a result their actions could then be directed towards achieving good for the whole of the world.... The organization is divided into administrative bodies, including the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Secretariat, Trusteeship Council, and the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN System agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nation's Children Fund (UNICF). The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General" (Wikipedia, 2007). The purpose of the United Nations from the very beginning was to maintain international security and peace, seek to develop friendly relations amongst all nations, try to tackle economic and social problems as well as humanitarian issues, and act as a hub for all nations to be able to act together so that as a result their actions could then be directed towards achieving good for the whole of the world. One of the most major goals of the UN is to defend international human rights, and they are by far the most representative and influential organization in the world in this regards. They have worked dutifully and consistently in order to provide the most stable and secure international human rights and they are constantly striving to even further improve in these areas. The importance of this particular role of the UN has always been evident and present, however more so than ever it has been in recent years, particularly in regards to the complexities and troubles that have been taking place internationally. One of the most recent and significant troubles is that of the invasion of Iraq by the United States, which occurred on March 20, 2003, and which resulted in the winning of a quick military victory and the ousting of the government of Saddam Hussein. Although both the United States and the

Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 15

Human Resource Management - Essay Example or recruiting able and established staff is very much there since every organization or company for that matter wants to achieve efficiency and effectiveness when it comes to getting the things done in a quick manner. There are instances when employees have been known to prolong things just because they do not feel to be in the mood to do so. This is a definitive statement on the part of the employees that they were recruited wrongly at the time of their hiring and the organization did indeed make a mistake in choosing such a worker over other options that were available to it all over the world. It has been seen that at times, the top line personnel present in offices delegate jobs and assignments to their sub-ordinates without even thinking that the same might not be the correct manner and mode of action as to go about carrying out the tasks and responsibilities. They think that delegation would prosper a sense of getting more work within the sub-ordinates who themselves are pretty much occupied with their already assigned tasks and jobs. This is hence not the correct manner in which things should be done and hence a need has to be chalked out to ramify the very same problem. The best possible diversity that could be made in this regard is to appoint top line managers who understand the psyche of the people working under him or her or on the same level as his so that he or she can get a grasp as to what employees usually are best suited at and what they do not prefer under certain strenuous conditions in the office place environment. As a consequence, being able to do more work is definitely considered a plus and an added advantage for an employee but this should not, under any level, exceed his or her capabilities and skill sets. He or she must be assigned the amount of work which is proportionate with his or her pay, already set working conditions and more so the skills on the basis of which he or she was selected in the first place. Diversity therefore could

Global Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global Leadership - Essay Example Further, the commentary proffered implications of the trend to Western countries and an identification for causes of concern. Reference was made to Ghemawat & Hout’s (2008) article entitled â€Å"Tomorrow’s Global Giants: Not the Usual Suspects† to infer the possible threats China and India could inflict in contemporary multinational companies. The need to be vigilant and to prepare to refocus global strategies is recommended to address impending global leadership of these giants in the future. â€Å"China and India: Contest of the Century† The article from The Economist entitled â€Å"China and India: Contest of the Century† initially made reference to global powers of the 19th century as centered on three distinct nations: America, Japan, and Germany, after the British Empire had its share of predominance in world power. The article thereby highlighted China and India at the center stage, as emerging global giants in the 21st century. The rational e for these two countries’ global prominence lies in various factors, to wit: the population and the geographic size, among others, categorizing them as continents.

Diversity Organizations Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Diversity Organizations Worksheet Essay What has been the status of women in the United States throughout history? Throughout history women have been seen as less than to men. It has been rough on the women coming from minority groups because not only are they looked down on because of the group they are associated with but they are also women. For example, in the black community during the civil rights movement when blacks could not vote, and when they finally were allowed to vote, the women still could not. There has also been situations within the workforce when women could do a â€Å"manly job† but according to society they were not capable. †¢What is the status of women in the U.S. today? The status of women in the U.S. today has improved a lot. According to The State of Women in America, â€Å"women made up only about one-third of the workforce in 1969, women today make up almost half of all workers in the United States. Women are also stepping up to lead the country; a record number of women ran for public office in 2012, and a record-high percentage of women are serving in Congress.† Women today feel more apart, rather than an outcast. It is also clear to see that America is going to start to see changes with leaders of the country. Women are also paid equally to men according to their qualifications for the nature of the job. †¢What are some examples of concepts or constructions of masculinity and femininity that you see in society and in media? With media today, masculine males are seen as military men, or law enforcement officers, also most athletic figures. Men are shown to not to have emotion or care about women’s feelings.men are also portrayed to not care that much about their physical appearance. A man sitting back watching his favorite sports team and drinking beer on his favorite couch, while his wife is in the kitchen cooking and cleaning , as well as taking care of the children. Feminine in the media today is coming off as a petite, big breasted, and a fit body.it is seen on the famous lingerie commercials as well in movies associated with tough guys and fast cars. These commercials and movies give society a view that women should be a certain size and carry themselves a specific way. †¢Historically, what has been the social status of GLBT people? Historically, the social status of GLBT people has been very rough. It was hard for these individuals come out of the closet and be who they really are in front of the public eye. GLBT people have been discriminated against almost as much as African Americans. For example men who had a more feminine side could not show that because they feared that they may be beaten, or set aside from the rest of the men. These individuals believe because they live the way they choose they are unable to find jobs because companies would be ashamed to have them working for their company unless the owner is gay themselves. There has been a lot of changes throughout history to ensure that all Americans are being treated equal. †¢What is the status of GLBT people in the U.S. today? GLBT people in the U.S. today are beginning to experience a lot more equality. What this means is they are now starting to be allowed to marry one another. They are receiving a lot more protection in places like prisons, or jails. The overall awareness for these individuals has increased. Media has allowed for them to tell their stories, and there are some television shows about their lifestyles as well. Media has probably the largest impact in today’s society, so the fact that media is now coming around to promote the awareness is definitely a plus for GLBT people. †¢What are some social and political issues relevant to women and GLBT people in the U.S.? The social and political issues that surround this is that the women are becoming more lavish in today’s politics, and they are very tough within our political system. Hilary Clinton is a strong female in politics and has made a name for herself. There are many other women that have strong traits and similarities in politics just as Mrs. Clinton does and these women are just as valuable as the men are. GLBT people have also made a very recognizable name for themselves by using as many avenues as possible to strengthen their movement for equality. The media has been a big influence for these individuals and it is constantly on the rise. Gay marriage has been a big update on news channels all across America and is spreading like a rapid fire. This has given them the ability to come out and be who they are and not worry too much about what others have to say about them. There is still along path ahead of both women and the GLBT community but they are well on their way.

Hong Kong Society and Social Stratification

Hong Kong Society and Social Stratification The Concept of Social Stratification Stratification is the geological concept of strata rock layers in natural processes. While in sociology, the concept of stratification turns to refer to the different strata of social groups and their arrangements. Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality which involves power, prestige and wealth. We can find in our lives that one group may own and enjoy more economic resources than another, or it may be held in high esteem, or it may be in a position to order other groups around. The study of social stratification is to explore how is the hierarchy formed within the society, how are social resources unequally distributed and how these different groups relate to one another. Obviously, the arrangement of different social groups within a society is not really like the arrangements of rock in the earths crust as there are frequent and various interactions between the higher and lower social groups. Moreover, contrary to solid rock layers, rises and falls take place both by group and by individuals in social system. One group may rise in power and status while another group may fall. Individuals also move up and down to change their group belongings. So when we study social stratification, we should pay attention to its characteristic of interaction and mobility. Any neglect would lead to a false conclusion. Theories of Social Stratification Social stratification is not a new born concept. Long ago in ancient China, Li was considered a special subject on institutions and manners which gave a strict division and rules of social classes. In Han Shu-Monograph on Food and Currency , people were stratified in a descending order of scholars, peasants, workers and businessmen. In the west, the earliest discussion on social stratification can be dated back to ancient Greece. Plato illustrated an ideal state in Republic with three stable classes of freemen-Rulers or Philosopher Kings, Warriors or Guardians, and Workers, while Aristotle argued with an idea of the rich, the poor and the middle. When talking about social stratification, we can always find these two names: Karl Marx and Max Weber. The classic statements on both social class and stratification provide the foundation from which we can fully appreciate current social dynamics and new directions in the study of social inequality. The Marxist Perspective Karl Marx was born in the aftermath of the European Revolution. By witnessing the end of the old era and the emergence of a new age, he found a similarity in all societies-the ever existence of two social classes. He inherited Hegels account of the conflict between master and slave, then took the idea of two opposed forces to analyze the form of the conflict. Marx was the first to develop a systematic theory on social class. A class is a social group whose members share the same relationship to the means of production. Individuals in a class not only act in much the same way but also tend to think in much the same way. There are two major social groups in all societies, a ruling one and a subject one. The relationship between the two major classes is conflict-exploiter and exploited, oppressor and oppressed. Marx conceived the society as a system of production based on the existence of these two opposite social classes. The ruling class (the bourgeoisie) own the means of production (land, capital, labour power, buildings and machinery) while subject class (the proletariat) has no choice but to work for the capitalists. Wage labourers produce goods and services but get only subsisted rewards. Employers take the products away to sell them at a value greater than their cost of production. By accumulating this surplus value, capitalists get m ore wealth and means of production to sustain the system. Capital is a social power. Political power comes from economic power, from the control of means of production. The ruling class build up the superstructure of society-the major institutions, values and belief systems, according to the common interests of the group. They seek protection for their ownership of means of production through laws and mechanisms which are favorable to them. In addition, a distorted picture of reality (ideology) was invented to justify and legitimate the domination of the ruling class and to inculcate the mass oppressed working class a false consciousness of the nature of relationship between social classes. Marx pointed out that there is a polarization of the classes through which the society would more and more split into the two great hostile camps. Although he did not deny the individual mobility between the social groups, the possibility is little because each group is relatively closed. Individual movement up and down does nothing to change the system. Only by thorough revolutions can social orders be reconstructed, can means of production be used by everyone and can social equality be achieved. Despite the great contribution to the study of social stratification, people raised problems in Marxist approach as listed below: Not all societies are class societies Class may not be the most basic social division The rise of the middle class and the fragmentary class structure Working class consciousness and intellectual wishful thinking To solve these problems, Neo Marxist scholars have made many efforts. Succeeding Marxs basic view of social stratification, the primary concern of modern Marxian theorists has been to apply this Marxian view of society to industrial societies that have experienced change since Marxs time, while also using new methods of social science research to validate some of the principal Marxian concepts. For instance, Gramsci accused dehumanizing aspects of modern capitalism and advocated more education on working class to develop intellectuals among them. Poulantzas thought the fragmentation of class structure was a defining characteristic of late capitalism, so any analysis must tackle the new constellation of interests and power. Structural Marxist, Wright, did some empirical research on social stratification. Inspired by others works, he borrowed the concept of skills and defined class in relation to the productive system: Capitalists, managers, workers and the petty bourgeoisie. The Weberian Alternative Max Weber contributed the most to development of stratification theory since Marx. He was said to have had a dialogue with Marx but got different conclusions. Marx saw classes in economic terms, while man does not strive for power only in order to enrich himself economically. He expanded Marxs standard of class division to a multidimensional view. People forming the same class roughly share common life chances which are reflected into class situation. In Webers point of view, ownership of property will directly give an individual more life chances in market, however, the skills and education the individual has had is also playing an important role in defining social classes. Under this assumption, Weber was able to explain the emergence of middle class while Marxism failed to do so. He identified as social class according to the economic rewards in labour market- the working class as a whole, the petty bourgeoisie, technicians, specialists and lower-level management and the classes privileged through property and education. Moreover, social stratification is not only decided by class(economic rewards), status is another significant perspective. Whereas class refers to the unequal distribution of economic rewards, status refers to the unequal distribution of social honor, which refers to how a person or a group is regarded by others. Individuals from a similar status group are likely to share similar status situation including lifestyle, sense of belonging and restriction on interaction with outsiders etc. This dimension managed to solve the doubt about the role of gender, ethnicity and religion in stratification theory. The last dimension in Webers three-component theory of stratification is party or power. To achieve whatever goals, people form organizations in rational orders to influence and dominate others. The most typical organizations of this kind are political parties and bureaucratic institutions. Where is one stand and how is one placed within the organization decide ones position in this dimension of stratification. Weber concluded that the three dimensions of hierarchies lead to the ranking of individual and group in human society. Nevertheless, the importance of each dimension differs in different societies. Webers theory of social stratification has relativity and mobility, which enlightened his successors like Anthony Giddens, Frank Parkin and John Goldthorpe, etc., to continue promoting the development of multidimensional theory of stratification. The Former Study on Hong Kong s Social Stratification Boggs, C. (1984). The two revolutions : Antonio Gramsci and the dilemmas of western Marxism (1st ed.). Boston, MA: South End Press. Crompton, R. (1993). Class and stratification : an introduction to current debates. Cambridge, UK ; Cambridge, MA, USA: Polity Press. Haralambos, M., Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology : themes and perspectives (7 ed.). London: HarperCollins Publishers. Hess, A. (2001). Concepts of social stratification : European and American models. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York: Palgrave. Kerbo, H. R. (1996). Social stratification and inequality : class conflict in historical and comparative perspective (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Levine, R. F. (1998). Social class and stratification : classic statements and theoretical debates. Lanham: Rowman Littlefield Publishers. Li, P. (2004). Social stratification in Chinas today(Zhongguo she hui fen ceng) (1 ed.). Beijing: She hui ke xue wen xian chu ban she. Li, X. (2008). Dream and reality : stratification and social mobility in Hong Kong(Meng Xiang Yu Xian SHI: Xiang Gang De She Hui Fen Ceng Yu She Hui Liu Dong) ( 1 ed.). Beijing: Publisher of Peking University. Marx, K., Engels, F. (1888). Manifesto of the Communist party ([5th ed.). London,: W. Reeves. Poulantzas, N. A. (1982). Political power and social classes. London: Verso. Saunders, P. (1990). Social class and stratification. London: Routledge. Weber, M., Gerth, H. H., Mills, C. W. (2009). From Max Weber : essays in sociology. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York: Routledge. Wright, E. O. (1997). Class counts : comparative studies in class analysis. Cambridge ; New York Paris: Cambridge University Press ;Maison des sciences de lhomme.

Pedro Almodovars Talk to Her (Hable con Ella) and Live Flesh (Carne Tr

Pedro Almodovar, in his recent films Talk to Her (Hable con Ella) (2002) and Live Flesh (Carne Trà ©mula) (1997), has brought a thoroughly modern interpretation to the genre of melodrama. These fresh illustrations of human love, loneliness, frustration and individuality explore the complexity of human interaction and interestingly, in Talk to Her, the interactions of the sentient in relation to the insentient. "Nothing is simple," Alicia's ballet teacher muses in Talk to Her, this statement accurately captures the essential Pedro Almodovar style. Both of the works selected for analysis in this essay are melodramas. The word "melodrama" originated from the Greek root which directly translated means "music drama". These films do incorporate music to add to the emotional impact of certain scenes. Examples of this are: (a) in Live Flesh! When Victor is watching TV in prison and sees Elena and David celebrating David's new career, there is a close up of Victors face conveying his hurt accompanied by music in-keeping with Victor's frame of mind. This increases the impact for the viewers as the music is in contrast with Elena and David's joy. (b) in Talk to Her the same tense, measured music is used during several scenes to denote their importance in the narrative (when Benigno is about to speak to Alicia for the first time, at the beginning of Lydia's last fight and when Marco is rushing to the prison in an attempt to stop Benigno from taking drastic measures in prison.) The use of intertextuality in these films is also apparent. The newsreel of the coverage of Victor's birth is significant. Victor's mother appears cold and restrained compared to the intimacy the audience achieves in the scene prior as we hear her cries from her labour pains. In Talk to Her the opening and closing performance art pieces are an outlet for the emotional pain and turmoil which Marco must grapple with. The silent movie too expresses more efficiently what is occurring for Benigno on an emotional level than a depiction of the act of rape could have. Apart from the use of music, colour is integral to Almodovar's melodrama. In Live Flesh! the walls of the apartments where the characters live, as well as the school where Victor and Elena work, are warm and vibrant. The contrast between dark green and deep reds and mustards provide a cosiness that puts... ...an a single life partner. The film Live Flesh! explores the responsibility of sexuality. The film opens with Victor’s birth, the result of his mother’s sexual activity as a prostitute, just after Christmas (an event alleged to celebrate the exact day of Jesus’ birth [not, apparently, the result of sexual activity] and hence the birth of the New Testament and an enormous religious following, the birth of Christ is therefore considered as an overtly positive and important event for Christians to this day). The next important event in the film is Victor’s one night stand with Elena, and the events which follow result in life changing consequences for all involved. Aside from David’s injury (the result of David sleeping with Sancho’s wife), David and Elena fall in love and marry and Victor goes to prison. The sexual relations between Victor and Clara and Victor and Elena subsequent to his release all have major consequences, Elena’s divorce from Davis and the death s of both Clara and Sancho. Sancho points out just prior to his death that he â€Å"should have shot your balls off when I had the chance.† Yes, that would have made life easier and more boring for all characters concerned.

Pop Art Movement Essay

The word Pop Art is an abbreviation for Popular Art. The name says it all. The Pop Art movement wanted to bring art back into the daily life of people. It was a reaction against abstract painting, which pop artists considered as too sophisticated and elite. Pop Art emerged in the mid 1950s in England, but realized its fullest potential in New York in the ’60s where it shared, with Minimalism, the attentions of the art world. In Pop Art, the epic was replaced with the everyday and the mass-produced awarded the same significance as the unique; the gulf between â€Å"high art† and â€Å"low art† was eroding away. The media and advertising were favorite subjects for Pop Art’s often-witty celebrations of consumer society. They admired the singular artworks of Pablo Picasso’s Plate with Wafers and Stuart Davis’ Lucky Strike. They also appreciated the work of Marcel Duchamp whose ready-mades, as he called them, added a new sense of completion for the Pop artists. Marcel Duchamp was dismayed that the Pop artists appreciated his work. He stated, â€Å"I threw the bottle rack and the urinal into their faces as a challenge and now they admire them for their aesthetic beauty† (Wikipedia, 2006). Pop Art had an unusual kind of history for a modern art movement; it existed in the United States, England, California, and even in Canada. For the first few years of its existence, and especially in New York, Pop Art went relatively unnoticed. Eventual, recognition of Pop Art began in the early 1950’s and slowly developed over the next few years. Pop Art developed mostly because artists began to re-direct their attention to the possibilities of change. The term â€Å"Pop Art† was first used by the English critic Lawrence Alloway in a 1958 issue of Architectural Digest to describe those paintings that celebrate post-war consumerism, defy the psychology of Abstract Expressionism, and worship the god of materialism (Pioch, 2002). It was also related closely to Dada, an earlier movement (largely French) that poked fun at the highbrow and serious nature of the art world and also used everyday objects and mundane subjects. Warhol’s rows of Campbell’s tins of tomato soup are equivalent to Marcel Duchamp’s bicycles and urinals placed in galleries. The artists began to associate more often with one another in the 1960’s. In 1961, the Pop artists showed their work at the Young Contemporaries Exhibition. The list of artists included David Hockney, Peter Phillips, and Derek Boshier. On the New York side of Pop Art, such artists as Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, and Tom Wesselmann, began exploring their own aesthetic program. Throughout the 1950’s and 60’s, these artists created work that was deeply rooted in culture, both in the United States and Europe. By 1965, when Pop artists showed their work at the Milwaukee art center, Pop Art had become well defined and regarded. It marked a return to sharp paintwork and representational art. It was an appreciation of theretofore-unappreciated objects and images of mass culture and ordinary commerce. The most famous of the Pop artists, the cult figure Andy Warhol, recreated quasi-photographic paintings of people or everyday objects. References Wikipedia. Fountain (Duchamp). 27 November 2006.Wikipedia. December 10, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp) Pioch, Nicolas. Pop Art. 14 October 2002. WebMuseum. December 10, 2006. http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/tl/20th/pop-art.html Andy Warhol Andy Warhol was born Andrew Warhola on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh. He received his B.F.A. from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, in 1949. That same year, he moved to New York, where he soon became successful as a commercial artist and illustrator. During the 1950s, Warhol’s drawings were published in Glamour and other magazines and displayed in department stores. He became known for his illustrations of I. Miller shoes. In 1952, the Hugo Gallery in New York presented a show of Warhol’s illustrations for Truman Capote’s writings. He traveled in Europe and Asia in 1956. In 1952 Andy Warhol had his first one-man show exhibition at the Hugo Gallery in New York. In 1956 he had an important group exhibition at the renowned Museum of Modern Art. In the sixties Warhol started painting daily objects of mass production like Campbell Soup cans and Coke bottles. Soon he became a famous figure in the New York art scene. From 1962 on he started making silkscreen prints of famous personalities like Marilyn Monroe or Elizabeth Taylor. In addition to painting, Warhol made several 16mm films, which have become underground classics such as Chelsea Girls, Empire and Blow Job (Andy Warhol Foundation, 2002). In 1968, Valerie Solanis, founder and sole member of SCUM (Society for Cutting Up Men) walked into Warhol’s studio, known as the Factory, and shot the artist. The attack was nearly fatal. After this assassination attempt the pop artist made a radical turn in his process of producing art. The philosopher of art mass production now spent most of his time making individual portraits of the rich and affluent of his time like Mick Jagger, Michael Jackson or Brigitte Bardot. Warhol’s activities became more and more entrepreneurial. He started the magazine Interview and even a nightclub. In 1974 the Factory was moved to 860 Broadway. In 1975 Warhol published THE philosophy of Andy Warhol. In this book he describes what art is: â€Å"Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art† (Wikipedia, 2006). The artist began the 1980s with the publication of POPism: The Warhol ’60s and with exhibitions of Portraits of Jews of the Twentieth Century and the Retrospectives and Reversal series. He also created two cable television shows, â€Å"Andy Warhol’s TV† in 1982 and â€Å"Andy Warhol’s Fifteen Minutes† for MTV in 1986. His paintings from the 1980s include The Last Suppers, Rorschachs and, in a return to his first great theme of Pop, a series called Ads. Warhol also engaged in a series of collaborations with younger artists, including Jean-Michel Basquiat, Francesco Clemente and Keith Haring. Following routine gall bladder surgery, Andy Warhol died February 22, 1987. After his burial in Pittsburgh, his friends and associates organized a memorial mass at St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York that was attended by more than 2,000 people. Two years later, in May 1994 the Andy Warhol Museum opened in his hometown Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. References Andy Warhol Foundation. 2002.Andy Warhol: Biography. December 10, 2006. http://www.warholfoundation.org/biograph.htm Wikipedia. Andy Warhol. 10 December 2006. Wikipedia. December 10, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol Bauhaus School The Bauhaus School is a school of design founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919 by Walter Gropius. Its signature modernist style, integrating Expressionist art with the fields of architecture and design, was enormously influential throughout the world. The foundation of the Bauhaus occurred at a time of crisis and turmoil in Europe as a whole and particularly in Germany. Its establishment resulted from a confluence of a diverse set of political, social, educational and artistic shifts in the first two decades of the twentieth century. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering and in 1996 changed its name to Bauhaus University Weimar. In 1927, the Bauhaus style and its most famous architects heavily influenced the exhibition â€Å"Die Wohnung† (â€Å"The Dwelling†) organized by the Deutscher Werkbund in Stuttgart. A major component of that exhibition was the Weissenhof Siedlung, a settlement or housing project. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe succeeded by Hannes Meyer, and then in turn Gropius. The Bauhaus art school existed in four different cities (Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to 1932, Berlin from 1932 to 1933) and Chicago from 1937-1938, under four different architect-directors (Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928, Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 to 1933 and Là ¡szlà ³ Moholy-Nagy from 1937-1938) (Wikipedia, 2006. When the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, for instance, although it had been an important revenue source, the pottery shop was discontinued. When Mies took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it. Under increasing political pressure the Bauhaus was closed on the orders of the Nazi regime on April 11 1933. The Nazi Party and other fascist political groups had opposed the Bauhaus throughout the 1920s. They considered it a front for communists, especially because many Russian artists were involved with it. Consequently, many Weissenhof architects fled to the Soviet Union, thus strengthening the effect. Nazi writers such as Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg called the Bauhaus â€Å"un-German,† and criticized its modernist styles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology (National Arts Centre, 2006). The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design were important components. Vorkurs (â€Å"initial course†) was taught; this is the modern day Basic Design course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural schools across the globe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and created according to first principles rather than by following precedent. One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of modern furniture design. The world famous and ubiquitous Cantilever chair by Dutch designer Mart Stam, using the tensile properties of steel, and the Wassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples. References Wikipedia. Bauhaus. 8 December 2006. Wikipedia. December 10, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus National Arts Centre. 2006. Eras and ‘Isms’: Bauhaus. December 10, 2006. http://www.artsalive.ca/en/dan/dance101/glossary.asp Lyonel Feininger Lyonel Feininger was born in New York City to German immigrant parents. He left for Europe in 1887 to study at the Kà ¶nigliche Akademie Berlin under Ernst Hancke and art schools in Berlin with Karl Schlabitz and in Paris with sculptor Filippo Colarossi (Did you mean, 2006). He quickly established a reputation as one of the foremost political cartoonists in Germany before being offered a contract to produce caricatures for the Chicago Sunday Tribune, for which he created one of his most famous strips in 1906, ‘The Kin-der-Kids’. He is also working as a caricaturist for several magazines including Harper’s Round Table, Harper’s Young People, Humoristische Blà ¤tter, Lustige Blà ¤tter, Das Narrenschiff, Berliner Tageblatt and Ulk. Feininger married Clara Fà ¼rst, daughter of the painter Gustav Fà ¼rst and they had two daughters. Later he had also several children together with Julia Berg and they later married. In 1907 Feininger dedicated himself to painting. On a visit to Paris he came into contact with Cubism and, with the support of Robert Delaunay, he began to develop a distinctive style of painting. He became a member of the Section door in 1912 and exhibited with the Blue Rider group the following year. He remained in Germany throughout the First World War and in 1919 he was appointed â€Å"master† at the Bauhaus in Weimar where he taught until its closure by the Nazis in 1933. During this period he developed his woodcutting techniques. The Nazi exhibition of Degenerate Art, however, persuaded him to return to the United States in 1937, and he remained in New York for the rest of his life. Famous for his Cubist paintings, Feininger was an essential member of the Bauhaus school. Most recognizable for his Cubist architectural scenes, Feininger’s range of art stretches to woodcuts, cartoons, drawings, pen and ink, and watercolor, depicting subjects ranging from people to still life to sketches of landscape vistas. He made use of rhythmic interpretations of natural forms, studied the effects of transparency and prismatic planes, and used light to reconstruct elements from the real world (Art Industri, 2006). Feininger strove to â€Å"transform in the mind and crystallize what one sees.† Reality in his work does not rely strictly upon the representation of observed impressions but in the appropriation and transformation of perceptions into spatial and plastic, multidimensional pictorial structures. Feininger’s work is built up of layers of prismatic and crystalline forms, one above the other. Only their mutual interpretation produces the object, and it leads into the depth of the pictorial space rather than to its surface. Aside from the use of pictorial space for purely architectural depiction, the fundamental innovation in his work is the creation of formal volume through the overlapping of color planes. Spatial depth and volume, intrinsic to Feininger’s work, changed with his development as an artist. In his first paintings, compositions deal with earthbound energies trying to disengage them. Conflict between the aspiring verticals and the gravitating horizontals result in diagonal forms, exuding a dynamic ascent. As the war ended, the tension, which had held him since 1910, began to relax. His great seriousness gave way to a more serene and lyrical mood, softer and finer. In the pictures he created in the second half of the 1920s, Feininger achieved ever-greater calm and clarity of form. References Did you mean. 2006. Lyonel Feininger. December 10, 2006. http://www.did-you-mean.com/Lyonel_Feininger_9c5f.html Art Industri. 2006. Lyonel Feininger. December 10, 2006. http://articons.co.uk/feininger.htm The New York School The New York design avant-garde did not think in pure painterly terms, but drew their inspiration from protean notions of need and function; in this respect, they echoed not only European trends as represented by De Stijl and El Lissitzky, but also elegant Modernists of an earlier era, like Raymond Loewy and Norman Bel Geddes (Art and Culture, 2006). In the hands of designers such as Herb Lubalin, the quantum kernels of design — letter forms themselves — became objects of meaning. Just as phototypography appeared, liberating designers from metal type, Lubalin appeared in the late ‘50s with his own creative misuse of the new technology. He became known as a type basher, an experimenter who imbued individual characters with meanings of their own. In the process, Herb Lubalin’s name became synonymous with innovative advertising, as well as iconoclastic package design and editorial content. The music business is often credited for the cultural foment of the 1960s, but the advertising world had planned pop cultural upheaval nearly a decade before. Leading the creative revolution on Madison Avenue was the agency Doyle Dane Bernbach, whose copywriters were the first to use cynicism and irony in the formulation of a new â€Å"anti-advertising,† which stimulated sales. The agency’s enormously successful campaign for the Volkswagen Beetle lampooned the auto manufacturer’s static designs, the innate homeliness of the car, and the disingenuous marketing of Detroit-made cars. The ads made consumers feel as though they were in collusion with the advertiser, fellow skeptics who were in on the same joke. The rise of anti-establishment ad agencies such as DDB is chronicled in Thomas Frank’s â€Å"The Conquest of Cool,† which chronicles the rebel talents in marketing that jump-started American consumerism at the dawn of the ‘60s. References Art and Culture. 2006. New York School Design. December 10, 2006. http://www.artandculture.com/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ACLive.woa/wa/movement?id=357 Paul Rand Paul Rand (born Peretz Rosenbaum, August 15, 1914-November 26, 1996) was a well-known American graphic designer, best known for his corporate logo designs. Rand’s education included the Pratt Institute (1929-1932), the Parsons School of Design (1932-1933), and the Art Students League (1933-1934). He was one of the originators of the Swiss Style of graphic design (Area of Design).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Paul had completed his first career as a designer of media promotion at Esquire-Coronet – and as an outstanding cover designer for Apparel Arts and Directions. Paul Rand’s book, Thoughts on Design, with reproductions of almost one hundred of his designs and some of the best words yet written on graphic design, had been published four years earlier – a publishing event that cemented his international reputation and identified him as a designer of influence from Zurich to Tokyo. Paul Rand’s first career in media promotion and cover design ran from 1937 to 1941, his second career in advertising design ran from 1941 to 1954, and his third career in corporate identification began in 1954. Paralleling these three careers there has been a consuming interest in design education and Paul Rand’s fourth career as an educator started at Cooper Union in 1942. He taught at Pratt Institute in 1946 and in 1956 he accepted a post at Yale University’s graduate school of design where he held the title of Professor of Graphic Design. In 1937, Paul launched his first career at Esquire. Although he was only occasionally involved in the editorial layout of that magazine, he designed material on its behalf and turned out a spectacular series of covers for Apparel Arts, a quarterly published in conjunction with Esquire. Paul spent fourteen years in advertising where he demonstrated the importance of the art director in advertising and helped break the isolation that once surrounded the art department. The final thought of his Thoughts on Design is worth repeating: â€Å"Even if it is true that commonplace advertising and exhibitions of bad taste are indicative of the mental capacity of the man in the street, the opposing argument is equally valid. Bromidic advertising catering to that bad taste merely perpetuates that mediocrity and denies him one of the most easily accessible means of aesthetic development†. In 1954, the Museum of Modern Art cited him as one of the ten best art directors. This was the same year in which he received the gold medal from the Art Directors Club for his Morse Code advertisement addressed to David Sarnoff of RCA. By the time that Paul started working out of his Weston studio he was well known as a designer of trademarks. He had completed designs for several companies including Esquire, Coronet Brandy, and Robeson Cutlery. By 1955, the fates that continued to play a fortuitous role in channeling the Rand talent toward critical areas of design began to set the stage for his third major design career – corporate identity. Thomas J. Watson, Jr., had come recently to the presidency of the International Business Machines Corporation, and his search for a graphic designer to create the corporate image led to Paul Rand. The rest is design history. Towards the end of his life, Rand taught at several colleges and universities. He published children’s books with his wife, Ann Rand, which is notable for their clear and youthful style. They lived for many years in Weston, Connecticut; in a home of Paul’s own design. Paul Rand died in 1996. References Area of Design. 2006. American Icon: Paul Rand. December 10, 2006. http://www.areaofdesign.com/americanicons/rand.htm Coyne & Blanchard.2006.Pioneers: Paul Rand. December 10, 2006. http://www.commarts.com/CA/feapion/rand/